As a timely example, it might be helpful to reflect on where your thoughts have been during the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, optimistic people tend to report higher levels of subjective well-being in times of adversity (Carver et al., 2010). Research supports the common-sense notion that optimistic people are happier than pessimistic people. In contrast, an individual who attributes a past failure to bad luck is more likely to hold an optimistic outlook for the future. If an individual believes that their past failures stem from innate and unchanging character flaws, for example, they are more likely to hold a pessimistic outlook for the future. Specifically, this theory differentiates between whether individuals attribute past failures to stable or unstable causes. Some researchers, such as Peterson and Seligman, believe that expectations for the future stem from how individuals interpret past failures (1984). Later on, we will see some examples of this phenomenon. How do you think these beliefs influence the likelihood of doing certain behaviors? Research has shown that optimists are more likely to engage in goal-oriented behavior (and achieve these goals as a result). This theory reflects the central difference between optimists and pessimists. This confidence in achieving one’s goals tends to be a trait: some people expect to achieve their goals more often than not, while others expect not to reach their goals more often than not. Specifically, the expectancy-value theory posits that behavior is guided by the strength of an individual’s desire to reach a goal (value) and their confidence in achieving that goal (expectancy) (Scheier & Carver, 1992).

To understand why optimists and pessimists might experience life differently, we can take a quick look at behavior theory.

Optimism thesaurus